A Sea of Glass Read online

  Wethey, D. S., and S. A. Woodin. 2008. Ecological hindcasting of biogeographic responses to climate change in the European intertidal zone. Hydrobiologia, 606(1), 139–151.

  Wethey, D. S., S. A. Woodin, T. J. Hilbish, S. J. Jones, F. P. Lima, and P. M. Brannock. 2011. Response of intertidal populations to climate: Effects of extreme events versus long term change. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 400(1), 132–144.

  Williams, R. 2013. A new basal animal: Comb jellies take their place on the oldest branch of the animal family tree. The Scientist, www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/38619/title/A-New-Basal-Animal.

  Woodin, S. A. 1978. Refuges, disturbance, and community structure: A marine soft-bottom example. Ecology, 59, 274–284.

  ———. 1981. Disturbance and community structure in a shallow water sand flat. Ecology, 62, 1052–1066.

  ILLUSTRATIONS

  Common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) in glass from the Cornell collection

  The Blaschkas in their Dresden garden, circa 1880–1891

  Sea pansy (Renilla muelleri) in glass

  Elegant anemones (Anthopleura elegantissima) in a Juan Island tide pool

  Lithographs of anemones in a tide pool, by Philip Henry Gosse

  Anemones in glass: snakelocks anemone (Anemonia viridis), beadlet anemone (Actinia equina), and Parantheopsis cruentata

  The swimming anemone (Stomphia coccinea) alive in the San Juan Islands and in glass

  Sea pens and sea pansies (Renilla muelleri) in a Blaschka watercolor

  Orange cup coral (Astroides calycularis) in glass

  A creamy bank of the giant plumose anemone (Metridium farcimen)

  Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis) in glass

  Blaschka watercolors showing a diverse selection of jellyfish

  Lion’s mane jellyfish (Cyanea capillata) in a Blaschka watercolor and glass

  Siphonophores in glass: Apolemia uvaria and Rosacea cymbiformis

  The mauve stinger (Pelagia noctiluca): a live jellyfish in the Mediterranean, a Blaschka jellyfish in glass, and a Blaschka watercolor

  By-the-wind sailor (Velella velella) in glass and washed onto a Mediterranean beach

  Red-eye medusa (Polyorchis penicillatus) in a Blaschka watercolor and alive

  The tentacled tubeworm (Pista cretacea) in glass

  Worms in glass: Pherusa plumosa, Nereiphylla paretti, and Pista cristata alongside the sand grain tube it constructed

  The parchment tubeworm (Phyllochaetopterus major) in glass

  Burrowing lugworms in the family Arenicolidae: a Blaschka watercolor and live (Abarenicola pacifica)

  Serpula vermicularis in glass and a Blaschka watercolor

  Spotted sacoglossan (Caliphylla mediterranea) in glass

  The variable neon slug (Nembrotha kubaryana) in Indonesia’s Wakatobi Islands

  Facelina bostoniensis, a nudibranch from the aeolid family, in glass and alive at Shoals Marine Lab in New Hampshire

  The frond aeolis (Dendronotus frondosus) in a watercolor and alive

  The crowned doto (Doto coronata) in glass and alive at Shoals Marine Lab

  A sea dragon (Glaucus atlanticus) in glass and in a Blaschka watercolor

  Sponge-eating nudibranchs in the Wakatobi Islands: Goniobranchus leopardus and Kuni’s nudibranch (G. kuniei) near Kapota Island, and Anna’s chromodoris (Chromodoris annae)

  Clione limacina, a sea angel, in glass and alive at Friday Harbor

  The long-armed squid (Chiroteuthis veranyi) in glass

  The Blaschkas’ jeweled umbrella squid (Histioteuthis bonnellii) before and after restoration

  Cephalopods in glass: the common clubhook squid (Onychoteuthis banksia), stout bobtail squid (Rossia macrosoma), elegant cuttlefish (Sepia elegans), fourhorn octopus (Pteroctopus tetracirrus), curly tentacle octopus (Eledone moschata), and blanket octopus (Tremoctopus violaceus)

  Blaschka watercolor of a male argonaut and a Blaschka glass model of a female argonaut (Argonauta argo)

  The ornate octopus (Callistoctopus ornatus) and day octopus (Octopus cyanea) in Hawaii

  The common sea star (Asterias rubens) as a juvenile in glass

  Feather stars feeding on a reef in Bali and on a high current wall near Kapota Island, Indonesia

  Echinoderm diversity in glass: Mediterranean crinoid Antedon mediterranea, brittle star Ophiothrix serrata, sea cucumber Synapta fasciata, and sea cucumber Trachythyone peruana

  Ophiothrix serrata brittle star before and after restoration

  Daisy brittle star (Ophiopholis aculeata) in glass and alive in Friday Harbor, Washington

  Healthy populations of the keystone star Pisaster ochraceus eating back the mussel bed in Bamfield, British Columbia

  The Mediterranean coral Dendrophyllia ramea in glass

  A zebra slug (Felimare picta) on an underwater cliff in the Mediterranean

  Projected effects of four different emission reduction scenarios on atmospheric CO2 concentration and mean global temperature

  The tree of spineless life, rendered in Blaschka glass

  Ctenophora: Hormiphora plumosa in glass

  Hydrozoa: Leuckartiara octona in glass, showing the polyp and attached medusa

  Platyhelminthes: the flatworm Acanthozoon ovale in glass

  Echiura: the spoon worm Bonellia viridis in glass

  Nudibranchia: the sea slug Plocamopherus imperialis in glass

  Cephalopoda: the squid Chtenopteryx sicula in glass

  Crinoidea: the sea feather Antedon mediterranea in glass

  Chordata: the sea squirt Boltenia ovifera, or sea peach, in glass

  INDEX

  abalone, 150

  Abarenicola pacifica, 78 fig.

  acidification. See ocean acidification

  acorn worms, 77, 79

  Actinia equina (beadlet anemone), 21, 23 fig.

  Actinoloba dianthus, 36

  See also Metridium senile

  Actinologia Britannica: A History of the British Sea-Anemones and Corals (Gosse), 6–7, 20, 22 fig., 58

  Aeolidia papillosa, 97

  aeolid nudibranchs, 93, 97, 182

  Aequorea victoria (crystal jelly), 64

  Agassiz, Louis, 58

  alabaster nudibranch, 39

  Alder, Joshua, 94

  algae, 158, 164, 183

  symbiosis with anemones and corals, 11, 19–20, 26–27, 28

  Alitta succinea, 77

  amphibians, disease in, 150, 162–63

  Ancistroteuthis lichtensteinii, 115–16

  anemones, 19–26, 53–54, 176

  biology and behavior, 19–21, 24–26, 176, 178

  in glass, 7, 21, 23 fig., 24 fig., 35–36, 173

  in search of Blaschka matches, 35–41

  as nudibranch prey, 90, 93, 97

  photographs, 20 fig., 24 fig.

  threats and conservation status, 156–57

  in watercolors and lithographs, 6–7, 20–21, 22 fig., 58

  See also specific taxa

  Anemonia viridis (snakelocks anemone), 21, 23 fig.

  Anna’s chromodoris (Chromodoris annae), 99, 104, 105 fig.

  annelid worms, 74, 84, 178, 179–80, 181

  See also specific taxa

  Antedon mediterranea, 143 fig., 187 fig.

  Anthopleura ballii, 19, 21

  Anthopleura elegantissima (elegant anemone), 19–20, 20 fig., 97

  anthozoans, 170 fig., 178

  antimicrobial chemicals, 74, 100

  Apolemia, 44–45, 46, 47 fig., 60

  Arenicola, 70, 77–78, 78 fig., 81–82

  Arenicolidae (lugworms), 70, 72, 77–78, 78 fig., 81–82

  Argentine shortfin squid (Illex argentines), 132

  argonaut (Argonauta argo), 119–20, 121 fig., 133, 158

  armored sea cucumber, 39

  arthropods, 184–85, 190

  ascidians, 54, 170 fig., 188

  See also sea squirts

  Aspergillus, 32

  Asterias rube
ns (common sea star), 136 fig., 148

  Astroides calycularis (orange cup coral), 33, 34 fig., 53, 54, 158, 159

  Aurelia aurita (moon jelly), 41, 46, 66

  Axinella, 159

  axolotl, 189

  bacteria

  antimicrobial chemicals, 74, 100

  Vibrio fischeri and squid bioluminescence, 126–27

  Balanophyllia europaea (solitary cup coral), 158, 159

  Balanophyllia regia (golden star coral), 54

  Bali dives, 136, 137–39

  beadlet anemone (Actinia equina), 21, 23 fig.

  biodiversity. See marine biodiversity

  biofuels, from marine sources, 164

  bioluminescence, 19, 45, 49–50, 52, 64, 126–27

  biomimicry, 101, 122, 151

  bivalves, 181, 182, 184

  blanket octopus (Tremoctopus violaceus), 118 fig., 120

  Blaschka, Joseph, 5

  Blaschka, Leopold, 5–9, 9 fig., 36, 49–50, 57, 58–59, 127, 156

  Blaschka, Rudolf, 6, 7, 8–9, 9 fig., 58, 59, 127, 155–56

  Blaschka correspondence and journals, 5, 7, 8, 36, 49–50, 58–59, 155

  Blaschka glass models, 1–12, 171–74

  background and techniques, 5–9, 49

  Cornell collection, 1–5, 10–11, 12, 173

  damage and restoration, 1–2, 3, 4–5, 10–11, 117, 142–43, 145 fig.

  efforts to find living matches, 2, 13–14, 15–16, 153–55

  extent and diversity of, 3–4, 7, 14, 173–74, 181–82, 184–85, 189

  flowers and plants, 4, 6, 58

  name and taxonomic changes, 15, 81

  other artists’ influences on, 3, 6–8, 21, 57–61, 94–95

  value and influence of, 10–13, 127

  watercolor studies for, 8–10, 21

  See also specific marine taxa

  Blaschka watercolors, 8–10, 21

  jellyfish, 44 fig., 45 fig., 55 fig., 65 fig.

  octopuses, 119–20, 121 fig.

  other artists’ influences on, 3, 6–8, 21, 57–61, 94–95

  sea pens and sea pansies, 18 fig., 27 fig.

  sea slugs, 94–95, 102 fig.

  worms, 9–10, 78 fig., 84 fig.

  blast fishing, 11, 90–91, 111

  bloodworms, 71, 72

  bluefin tuna, 160

  Blue Wilderness Divers, 114

  bobtail (sepiolid) squid, 126, 154, 184

  Rossia macrosoma, 116, 118 fig., 126

  Boero, Fernando, 64

  Boltenia ovifera (sea peach), 189 fig.

  Bonellia viridis (green spoon worm), 74, 180 fig.

  bonnelin, 74

  box jellies (cubomedusans), 46, 51, 176

  Brill, Elizabeth, 10, 117

  bristle worms, 72

  brittle stars (ophiuroids), 142–44, 151, 154, 161, 170 fig., 173, 186

  biology and behavior, 143–44, 151, 173, 187

  in glass, 142–43, 143 fig., 145 figs.

  Brown, David, 2, 13

  bull shark, 29–30, 31, 48

  Burge, Colleen, 149

  burrowing worms. See worms; specific taxa

  butterflies, 100

  by-the-wind sailor (Velella velella), 56, 57 fig., 60, 101, 154

  calcification, CO2 levels and, 29, 34–35, 161

  Caliphylla mediterranea (spotted sacoglossan), 88 fig.

  Caliphylla tricolor, 183

  Callistoctopus ornatus (ornate octopus), 114–15, 123–24, 123 fig.

  Campbell, Katie, 148

  carbon dioxide levels, 28–29, 33, 34–35, 157, 160, 161

  future scenarios, 163–64, 165 fig.

  See also climate change impacts; ocean acidification; ocean warming; warming

  Carinaria (sea elephant), 182, 183

  caterpillars, 100

  Cattaneo-Vietti, Riccardo, 89

  Centro Ricerche Ambiente Marino di Santa Teresa dell’ENEA, 52

  cephalaspids (head-shield slugs), 183

  cephalopods, 112–35, 173, 181, 183–84, 190

  biology and behavior, 117, 119, 120–22, 127–28, 131–32, 184

  in glass, 115–16, 127, 173, 183–84

  in Indonesian waters, 89, 128–31, 134–35

  in search of Blaschka matches, 113–15, 123–26, 128–31, 134–35

  as jellyfish predators, 66

  in Mediterranean, 126, 154, 157, 158, 159

  photographs, 118 fig.

  threats and conservation status, 131–34, 157, 158, 159–60

  in watercolor, 121 fig.

  See also cuttlefish; octopuses; squid; specific taxa

  Cerianthus membranaceaus, 53

  Cestum veneris (Venus girdle ctenophore), 51

  Chaetopteris variopedatus (parchment tubeworm), 76, 79

  Chiroteuthis veranyi (long-armed squid), 112 fig., 116, 158

  chitons, 181, 182

  chordates, 173, 187–89

  See also salps; sea squirts

  Christmas anemone (Urticina crassicornis), 36, 40

  chromatophores, 122

  chromodorid nudibranchs, 93, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105 fig.

  Chromodoris annae (Anna’s chromodoris), 99, 104, 105 fig.

  Chtenopteryx sicula, 185 fig.

  chytrid fungus, 150, 162–63

  clam worms (nereids), 71, 73 fig., 77, 79, 82, 180–81

  climate change impacts, 157, 161–62

  on coral reefs, 28–35, 150, 157, 158, 159

  jellyfish and, 63–64

  on Mediterranean marine life, 158, 159, 160

  sea star wasting and, 150

  worms and, 81–82

  See also carbon dioxide levels; ocean acidification; ocean warming; warming

  Clione limacina, 107, 108 fig., 183

  clown fish, 106

  clown nudibranch, 39

  cnidarians, 24, 103, 173, 176–78

  sea pansies, 18 fig., 26–27, 27 fig.

  sea pens, 27 fig.

  See also anemones; corals; jellyfish; specific taxa

  coastal disturbance and pollution, 32, 83, 92–93, 131, 150, 156

  Cocito, Sylvia, 52

  cod, 163

  colonial organisms

  corals as, 26

  jellyfish as, 43, 44, 56, 60–61, 176–78, 177 fig.

  coloration

  cephalopods, 121–22, 184

  mimicry, 101, 122, 151

  nudibranchs, 101

  sea cucumbers, 151

  comb jellies (ctenophores), 50–51, 52, 170 fig., 174–76, 175 fig., 190

  common clubhook squid (Onychoteuthis banksia), 118 fig.

  common octopus (Octopus vulgaris), 113–14, 120–21, 128, 132, 154

  in glass, xii fig., 1–2, 10–11, 115

  common sea star (Asterias rubens), 136 fig., 148

  Corallium rubrum (precious red coral), 63, 159

  Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management (COREMAP) sites, 92

  corals, 25, 26–35, 178

  biology and ecology, 25, 26–27, 138–39, 178

  CO2 sensitivity, 161

  current conservation status, 28–29, 33–35, 133, 150, 153, 158, 159

  in glass and watercolor, 34 fig., 152 fig.

  in Indonesia, 11, 90–91, 92–93, 99, 106–7, 138

  living Blaschka matches, 33, 53, 54, 63, 158, 159

  in Mediterranean, 33, 53, 54, 153, 154, 158, 159

  threats and declines, 11, 28–35, 90–91, 92–93, 106–7, 150, 157, 158, 159

  See also specific taxa

  Coral Triangle, 11, 90, 91, 138

  See also Indonesian dives

  COREMAP (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management) sites, 92

  Corning Museum of Glass, 5, 8, 115, 143

  crabs, 160

  crayfish, 160

  crinoids (sea feathers, feather stars), 99, 137, 173

  biology and behavior, 138, 139, 142, 186–87

  in glass, 143 fig., 187 fig.

  photographs, 140 fig.

  crowned doto (Doto coronata), 95, 97 fig.


  crustaceans, 184–85

  crystal jelly (Aequorea victoria), 64

  ctenophores (comb jellies), 50–51, 52, 170 fig., 174–76, 175 fig., 190

  cubozoans (cubomedusans)(box jellies), 46, 51, 176

  curly tentacle octopus (Eledone moschata), 118 fig., 154

  cuttlefish, 154

  biology and behavior, 119, 121–22, 134–35, 184

  conservation status, 133–34, 157

  in glass, 118 fig., 132

  See also cephalopods; specific taxa

  Cyanea capillata (lion’s mane jellyfish), 45 fig., 176

  daisy brittle star (Ophiopholis aculeata), 144, 145 fig.

  Darwin, Charles, 61

  day octopus (Octopus cyanea), 113, 114, 123 fig., 124–26

  Deane, Walter, 155

  dendronotid nudibranchs, 93

  Dendronotus frondosus (frond aeolis), 94, 96 fig.

  Dendrophyllia ramea, 152 fig.

  deuterostomes, 186

  See also specific taxa

  dinoflagellates, 19, 158

  Dioum, Baba, 10

  Discodoris atromaculata (sea cow), 153

  disease, 150–51

  in corals, 32, 150

  ocean warming and, 162–63

  sea star wasting, 146–50, 163

  dolphins, 160

  Doridella steinbergae, 98

  dorid nudibranchs, 93

  Dosidicus gigas (Humboldt squid), 132

  Doto coronata (crowned doto), 95, 97 fig.

  Dresden Botanical Garden and Natural History Museum, 6–7, 24

  Dublin Natural History Museum, 35–36

  E. coli, 100

  ecdysozoans, 184–85

  echinoderms, 136–51, 173

  biology and behavior, 138, 139, 141–44, 151, 186–87

  ecological importance, 142, 144, 146

  in glass, 139, 143 fig., 186, 187

  in search of Blaschka matches, 137–39, 151

  photographs, 140 fig., 145 fig.

  threats and conservation status, 146–51

  See also brittle stars; crinoids; sea cucumbers; sea stars; other specific taxa

  Echiura (spoon worms), 74, 170 fig., 178, 179, 180 fig.

  ecosystem engineers, 82–83, 142

  Edwards, Milne, 58

  Eisenlord, Morgan, 149

  Eledone cirrhosa, 132

  Eledone moschata (curly tentacle octopus), 118 fig., 154

  elegant anemone (Anthopleura elegantissima), 19–20, 20 fig., 97

  elegant cuttlefish (Sepia elegans), 118 fig.

  El Niño events, 29, 32–33

  endangered species and ecosystems, 159–60

  IUCN Red List, 133–34, 159–60

  See also marine biodiversity declines; specific taxa

  eugenics, 61