A Sea of Glass Read online

Eunicella verrucosa (sea whip), 159

  evolutionary relationships. See tree of life

  evolutionary theory, Haeckel’s theories and their influence, 57–58, 61

  Facelina bostoniensis, 94–95, 95 fig.

  feather duster worms, 9–10, 54, 85, 154

  Serpula vermicularis, 54, 70, 83, 84 fig., 85, 86

  feather stars. See crinoids

  Feeny, Paul, 2, 3

  Felimare picta (zebra slug), 153, 154 fig.

  Finnerty, John, 175

  fire coral, 103, 104

  fisheries declines, 65–66, 163

  cephalopods and, 132, 133

  Indonesia, 90–91

  jellyfish and, 56, 63–64

  Mediterranean, 56, 63, 66, 132, 160

  fisheries policy, 163

  flatworms (Platyhelminthes), 101, 178–79, 179 fig.

  flowers, Blaschka glass models of, 4, 6, 58

  fourhorn octopus (Pteroctopus tetracirrus), 118 fig.

  Friday Harbor Labs, 19, 64, 175

  frogs, 150, 162–63

  frond aeolis (Dendronotus frondosus), 94, 96 fig.

  fungal disease, 32, 150, 162–63

  gastropods, 170 fig., 173, 181, 182–83

  See also nudibranchs; sea slugs; specific taxa

  Germany, Social Darwinism in, 61

  GFP (green fluorescent protein), 19, 64

  giant plumose anemone (Metridium farcimen), 37, 39–40, 40 fig., 41

  Giovine, Ferdinando, 89

  Glaucus atlanticus (sea dragon), 10, 101, 102 fig., 103

  global warming. See climate change

  Glynn, Peter, 30, 31

  golden star coral (Balanophyllia regia), 54

  Goniobranchus kuniei (Kuni’s nudibranch), 105–6, 105 fig.

  Goniobranchus leopardus (leopard of the sea), 105, 105 fig., 106

  gorgonian corals, 63, 159

  See also sea fans

  Gosse, Phillip Henry, 3, 6–7, 20–21, 22 fig., 58

  great white shark, 48

  Greene, Chuck, 146

  green fluorescent protein (GFP), 19, 64

  green spoon worm (Bonellia viridis), 74, 180 fig.

  Haeckel, Ernst, 3, 8–9, 57–61, 95, 116

  hake, 160

  Halichondria, 100

  Halistemma rubrum, 60–61

  Hancock, Albany, 94

  Hanlon, Roger, 122

  Harvard glass flower collection, 4

  Hatziolos, Marea, 33

  Havenhand, Jon, 162

  Hawaiian bobtail squid, 126

  Hawaiian dives, 43, 48–52, 113–15, 123–26

  head-shield slugs (cephalaspids), 183

  Hewson, Ian, 149

  Hexabranchus sanguineus (Spanish dancer), 100

  Hexacorallia, 178

  See also corals; specific taxa

  Histioteuthis bonnellii (jeweled umbrella squid), 117 fig., 158

  Hooten, Andy, 33

  Hormiphora plumosa, 175 fig.

  human biology and evolution, 176, 183, 188, 189

  Humboldt squid (Dosidicus gigas), 132

  hydroids, 26, 103, 182

  hydrozoans (hydromedusae), 44, 60, 170 fig., 176–78, 177 fig.

  Illex argentines (Argentine shortfin squid), 132

  Illex coindetii, 132

  illustrations. See Blaschka watercolors; watercolors and prints

  Indonesian blast fishing, 11, 90–91, 111

  Indonesian dives

  cephalopod search, 128–29, 134–35

  echinoderm search, 137–39, 151

  nudibranch search, 89, 92–93, 98–101, 103, 104–6, 110–11

  spawning worms sighting, 79–81

  Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 161–62

  CO2 emissions projections, 165 fig.

  International Union for Conservation of Nature, 66, 84

  Red List, 133–34, 159–60

  Irukandji jelly, 45–46, 51

  Italian dives. See Mediterranean dives

  James, Laura, 146, 148

  Japanese flying squid (Todarodes sagittatus), 132

  jellyfish, 42–66, 154, 176–78

  biology and behavior, 43–46, 49–50, 54–56, 60–61, 62–64, 176–78

  in glass, 8, 10, 42 fig., 45 fig., 47 fig., 55 fig., 57 fig., 173, 177 fig.

  Haeckel’s influence on Blaschka models, 57–61

  in search of Blaschka matches, 43, 48–56, 62, 63, 154

  as nudibranch prey, 90, 101, 103–4

  paper nautilus and, 158

  photographs, 55 fig., 57 fig., 65 fig.

  threats and conservation status, 64–66, 156

  in watercolor, 44 fig., 45 fig., 55 fig., 65 fig.

  See also specific taxa

  jeweled umbrella squid (Histioteuthis bonnellii), 117 fig., 158

  keystone species, 144

  Kim, Catherine, 43, 48, 49

  Kim, Kiho, 32

  Kuni’s nudibranch (Goniobranchus kuniei), 105–6, 105 fig.

  Kunstformen der Natur (Art Forms of Nature) (Haeckel), 57

  Lanice conchilega (sand mason worm), 82–83

  larvaceans, 170 fig., 188, 189

  See also sea squirts

  leopards of the sea (Goniobranchus), 105, 105 fig., 106

  Leuckartiara octona, 177 fig.

  Limacina, 183

  limpets, 161

  lionfish, 103, 105

  lion’s mane jellyfish (Cyanea capillata), 45 fig., 176

  lobate ctenophores, 50–51

  Loligo forbesi, 132

  Loligo vulgaris, 132

  long-armed squid (Chiroteuthis veranyi), 112 fig., 116, 158

  lophotrochozoans, 181, 184

  See also specific taxa

  lugworms (Arenicolidae), 70, 72, 77–78, 78 fig., 81–82

  manoalide, 100

  marine biodiversity, 11, 15, 52, 91–92, 106–7, 138

  marine biodiversity declines, 156–66

  factors in, 156, 157, 158, 160–63

  Mediterranean declines since the Blaschkas’ day, 156–60

  vertebrate declines, 65–66, 150, 160

  See also climate change impacts; fisheries declines; ocean acidification; specific taxa

  mauve stinger (Pelagia noctiluca), 46, 54–56, 55 fig., 63, 64, 66, 154

  McFall-Ngai, Margaret, 126–27

  Mediterranean dives, 153–55, 164, 166

  jellyfish search, 52–56, 62, 63

  Mediterranean feather duster, 54

  Mediterranean fishery declines, 56, 63, 66, 132, 160

  Mediterranean invertebrate declines, 156–60

  medusae, 43, 44, 175

  See also jellyfish

  Membranipora membranacea, 98

  metamorphosis, 188

  Metridium farcimen (giant plumose anemone), 37, 39–40, 40 fig., 41

  Metridium senile (plumose anemone), 35–37, 41, 97

  Mexican salamander, Mexican walking fish, 189

  Mills, Claudia, 64–65

  mimicry, 101, 122, 151

  mobile worms, 71–72, 180–81

  See also worms; specific taxa

  molluscs, 109–10, 173, 181–86

  See also cephalopods; sea slugs; other specific taxa

  molting, 185, 190

  monarch butterfly, 100

  Monograph of the British

  Nudibranchiate Mollusca (Alder and Hancock), 94–95, 96 fig.

  Monterey Bay Aquarium, 128

  moon jelly (Aurelia aurita), 41, 46, 66

  moray eel, 103

  mottled star, 148

  Naples Zoological Station, 7

  Die Natur als Künstlerin (Nature as an Artist) (Haeckel), 58

  nematocysts, 25, 60, 104, 176

  See also toxins; venomous animals

  nematode worms, 185, 190

  Nembrotha kubaryana (variable neon slug), 94 fig.

  Nemertea (ribbon worms), 170 fig., 178, 179

  nereid worms (clam worms), 71, 73 fig., 77, 79, 82, 180–81

  Nereiphyl
la paretti, 73 fig.

  notochord, 188

  nuclear plant closures, 46

  nudibranchs, 10, 190

  biology and behavior, 10, 90, 93–95, 97–98, 99–101, 103–4, 182

  diversity and value of, 106–7, 110–11

  in glass, 93–94, 95 fig., 96 fig., 102 fig., 183 fig.

  in search of Blaschka matches, 89, 92–93, 98–101, 103, 104–6, 110–11

  in Mediterranean, 154–55, 157, 158, 159

  photographs, 94 fig., 95 fig., 96 fig., 105 fig., 154 fig.

  in Salish Sea, 39, 40, 94

  threats and conservation status, 90–91, 109–10, 111, 157, 159

  in watercolor, 94–95, 96 fig., 102 fig.

  See also sea slugs; specific taxa

  ocean acidification, 107–8, 157, 160–61, 162, 183

  cephalopods and, 133

  corals and, 28, 29, 33

  sea slugs and, 107–10

  sea stars and, 149–50

  worms and, 82

  ocean pollution, 156

  See also coastal disturbance and pollution

  ocean warming, 28–29, 33–34, 157, 158, 160, 162–63

  ochre star (Pisaster ochraceus), 141, 144, 146, 147 fig., 149

  octocorals, 32, 178

  See also corals; specific taxa

  Octopus cyanea (day octopus), 113, 114, 123 fig., 124–26

  octopuses, 14, 154, 170 fig., 184

  biology and behavior, 113, 115, 119, 120–21, 122, 128

  in glass, xii fig., 1, 11, 115–16, 118 fig., 120, 121 fig.

  in search of Blaschka matches, 113–15, 123–26, 128–31

  photographs, 123 fig.

  threats and conservation status, 128, 130–34, 157, 158

  in watercolor, 119–20, 121 fig.

  See also cephalopods; specific taxa

  Octopus vulgaris (common octopus), 113–14, 120–21, 128, 132, 154

  in glass, xii fig., 1–2, 10–11, 115

  omastrephid squid, 132

  Onychoteuthis banksia (common clubhook squid), 118 fig.

  Ophiopholis aculeata (daisy brittle star), 144, 145 fig.

  Ophiothrix serrata, 142–43, 143 fig.

  ophiuroids. See brittle stars

  orange cup coral (Astroides calycularis), 33, 34 fig., 53, 54, 158, 159

  ornate octopus (Callistoctopus ornatus), 114–15, 123–24, 123 fig.

  oysters, 157

  paedomorphosis, 189

  Paine, Bob, 144, 146

  palolo worms, 80–81, 83

  paper nautilus (argonaut), 119–20, 121 fig., 133, 158

  Paramuricea clavata (purple gorgonian), 63

  Parantheopsis cruentata, 23 fig.

  parchment tubeworms, 76, 76 fig., 79

  Pelagia noctiluca (mauve stinger), 46, 54–56, 55 fig., 63, 64, 66, 154

  penis worms (priapulids), 170 fig., 178, 179, 185

  Perinereis cultrifera, 71

  pharmaceuticals, derived from marine animals, 74, 100

  Pherusa plumosa, 70–71, 73 fig.

  Phyllidia, 104–5

  Phyllochaetopterus major (parchment tubeworm), 76, 76 fig.

  Physalia physalis. See Portuguese man-of-war

  Pisaster ochraceus (ochre star), 141, 144, 146, 147 fig., 149

  Pista cretacea (tentacled tubeworm), 68 fig., 82

  Pista cristata (sand worm), 73, 73 fig.

  plants and flowers, Blaschka glass models of, 4, 6, 58

  Platyhelminthes (flatworms), 101, 178–79, 179 fig.

  Plocamopherus imperialis, 183 fig.

  plumose anemone (Metridium senile), 35–37, 41, 97

  Polychaeta, 170 fig., 180

  See also worms

  Polyorchis penicillatus (red-eye medusa), 65, 65 fig.

  polyps, 176

  anemones and corals, 19, 25, 26–27, 176

  jellyfish, 44–45, 176, 177–78, 177 fig.

  Porifera. See sponges

  Porpita, 101, 103

  Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia physalis), 44, 51, 66

  biology and behavior, 43, 62–63

  Blaschka’s observation of, 6, 49

  in glass, 10, 42 fig., 60

  as nudibranch prey, 10, 101

  precious red coral (Corallium rubrum), 63, 159

  predator-prey interactions, 10, 97–98, 100–101, 103–4, 106–7, 182

  priapulids (penis worms), 170 fig., 178, 179, 185

  Priapulis caudatus, 185

  prints. See watercolors and prints

  Prosek, James, 12–13

  protostomes, 184

  See also specific taxa

  Pteroctopus tetracirrus (fourhorn octopus), 118 fig.

  pteropods, 107–9, 108 fig., 183

  See also sea angels; sea butterflies

  purple gorgonian (Paramuricea clavata), 63

  purple sea fan, 32

  Pycnopodia helianthoides (sunflower star), 141, 149

  Quirolo, Craig, 32

  Rakow Museum and Library, 7, 8

  rays, 160

  recapitulation theory, 57–58

  red-eye medusa (Polyorchis penicillatus), 65, 65 fig.

  red tides, 158

  Reichenbach, Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig, 6, 7, 24

  Reiling, Henri, 5, 7, 58

  See also Blaschka correspondence and journals

  Renilla muelleri (sea pansy), 18 fig., 27 fig.

  ribbon worms (Nemertea), 77, 170 fig., 178, 179

  Riegel, Carolina, 6, 9 fig.

  Robison, Bruce, 116

  Rohan, Camille de, Prince, 6

  Rosacea cymbiformis, 47 fig., 60

  Rossia macrosoma (stout bobtail squid), 116, 118 fig., 126

  sacoglossans, 93, 182, 183

  See also sea slugs; specific taxa

  salamanders, 150

  salmon kills, 46

  salps, 158, 189

  sand mason worm (Lanice conchilega), 82–83

  sand worm (Pista cristata), 73, 73 fig.

  Schleiden, M. J., 80

  scyphozoans (scyphomedusae), 43–44, 170 fig., 176

  sea angels, 107, 108 fig., 183

  sea bass, 160

  sea butterflies, 93, 107, 157, 161, 182, 183

  sea cow (Discodoris atromaculata), 153

  sea cucumbers, 39, 129, 170 fig., 173, 186

  biology and behavior, 40–41, 139, 142, 151, 173, 186

  in glass, 142, 143 fig.

  sea dragon (Glaucus atlanticus), 10, 101, 102 fig., 103

  sea elephant (Carinaria), 182, 183

  sea fans, 32

  See also gorgonian corals

  sea feathers. See crinoids

  sea pansies, 18 fig., 26–27, 27 fig.

  sea peach (Boltenia ovifera), 189 fig.

  sea pens, 27 fig.

  sea slugs, 88–111, 182–83

  biology and behavior, 89–90, 182

  diversity of, 90, 91

  photographs, 94 fig., 95 fig., 96 fig., 108 fig.

  sea angels and sea butterflies, 93, 107–9, 108 fig., 157, 161, 182, 183

  taxonomy of, 93–94, 182–83

  in watercolor, 94–95, 96 fig., 102 fig.

  See also nudibranchs; other specific taxa

  sea snakes, 103

  sea squirts, 39, 40, 54, 106–7, 188–89, 189 fig.

  See also ascidians

  sea stars, 136 fig., 147 fig., 154–55, 173, 186

  biology and behavior, 141–42, 173

  ecological importance, 144, 146

  threats and conservation status, 137, 141, 146–51, 163

  See also echinoderms; specific taxa

  sea star wasting, 146–50, 163

  sea urchins, 142, 162, 186

  sea whip (Eunicella verrucosa), 159

  segmented worms (Annelida), 74, 84, 178, 179–80, 181

  See also specific taxa

  semelparity, 120–21, 131–32

  Sepia elegans (elegant cuttlefish), 118 fig.

  Sepia officinalis, 132

  Sepiidae. See cuttlefis
h

  sepiolid (bobtail) squid, 126, 154, 184

  Rossia macrosoma, 116, 118 fig., 126

  Serpula vermicularis, 54, 70, 83, 84 fig., 85, 86

  sharks, 29–30, 31, 48, 66, 160, 163

  Shimomura, Osamu, 64

  Shoals Marine Lab, 69, 95

  siphonophores, 49, 59–61, 176–77

  biology and behavior, 44–45, 51–52, 60–61, 62–63

  in glass, 44–45, 47 fig., 59–60

  See also specific taxa

  snails, 161, 181, 182

  snakelocks anemone (Anemonia viridis), 21, 23 fig.

  Social Darwinism, 61

  solar energy, 19–20, 26–27, 183

  solitary cup coral (Balanophyllia europaea), 158, 159

  Spanish dancer (Hexabranchus sanguineus), 100

  spiral cleaving, 181

  Spirorbis, 9, 72, 85

  sponges, 154, 159, 174–75, 190

  as nudibranch prey, 99, 100, 104, 106–7

  spoon worms, 74, 170 fig., 178, 179, 180 fig.

  spotted sacoglossan (Caliphylla mediterranea), 88 fig.

  squid, 132, 154, 170 fig.

  biology and behavior, 115–16, 117, 126–27, 184

  in glass, 7, 112 fig., 115–16, 117 fig., 118 fig., 126, 132, 185 fig.

  threats and conservation status, 132, 133, 134, 157, 158

  See also cephalopods; specific taxa

  staurozoans (stauromedusae), 176

  Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 52

  Stilliger ornatus, 183

  Stomphia coccinea (swimming anemone), 21, 24, 24 fig., 25, 40

  stout bobtail squid (Rossia macrosoma), 116, 118 fig., 126

  Stronglylocentrotus nudus, 162

  stumpy-spined cuttlefish, 134–35

  sunflower star (Pycnopodia helianthoides), 141, 149

  Swalla, Billie, 175

  swimming anemone (Stomphia coccinea), 21, 24, 24 fig., 25, 40

  syllid worms, 180

  symbiosis

  algae-coral and algae-anemone symbiosis, 11, 19–20, 26–27, 28

  squid bioluminescence as, 126–27

  Synapta fasciata, 142, 143 fig.

  Synapta lamperti, 151

  Das System der Medusen (Haeckel), 59

  tadpoles, 188, 189

  Tealia crassicornis (Christmas anemone), 36, 40

  tentacled tubeworm (Pista cretacea), 68 fig., 82

  teuthid squid, 184

  See also specific taxa

  Thaliacea, 188

  See also salps

  Thayer, Charlie, 39

  threatened and endangered species and ecosystems, 159–60

  IUCN Red List, 133–34, 159–60

  See also marine biodiversity declines; specific taxa

  tiger shark, 48

  Todarodes sagittatus (Japanese flying squid), 132

  tooth shells, 181, 182

  torsion, 182

  toxins

  toxic prey, 10, 100–101, 103–4, 106–7, 182

  See also venomous animals

  Trachythyone peruana, 142, 143 fig.

  tree of life, 170 fig., 171–73